JULY 2025

The language controversy in India is not recent, it is one of the most enduring and emotionally charged issues in Indian polity.

Deep-seated in the country's unparalleled linguistic diversity, the controversy reveals a deeper struggle: the delicate balance between cultural identity, (central-state relationship) federal 

autonomy, and the central government’s drive for national integration.

•  हिंदी बनाम भारत: भाषा का युद्ध जो गणराज्य को बिखेर रहा है 

The language controversy is a recurring fault line in India’s postcolonial journey, revealing the country's ongoing tension between unity and diversity, centralization and federalism.

Whether in the 1930s or 2025, the battle lines remain strikingly similar.

Today, with the reemergence of old tensions in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Maharashtra, the controversy has now entered a new, volatile phase, reigniting concerns over centralization of language and cultural homogenization.

A Historical and Constitutional Foundation

India is home to over 19,500 mother tongues, according to the 2011 Census. Of these, 122 languages are spoken by more than 10,000 people, and 22 are constitutionally recognized in the Eighth Schedule. 

This linguistic plurality predates modern India, stretching back to ancient times when Sanskrit, Prakrit, Tamil, and Pali coexisted with regional dialects in a rich verbal and literary tradition.

Post-Independence, the question of language threatened to tear the newly-formed Union apart.

Hindi, though spoken by only about 44% of the population as per the 2011 Census, was proposed by the Constituent Assembly as the future national language. 

However, intense opposition from non-Hindi speaking regions, especially the south, forced a compromise.

• हिंदी बनाम भारत: भाषा का युद्ध जो गणराज्य को बिखेर रहा है

The Constitution of India (Article 343) designated Hindi in Devanagari script as the official language of the Union, but also mandated continued use of English for official purposes for a 

period of 15 years, later extended indefinitely by the Official Languages Act of 1963.

Official language of the Union.

(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.

(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the 

Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement:

Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi 

language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.

(3) Notwithstanding anything in this article, Parliament may by law provide for the use, after the said period of fifteen years, of —

(a) the English language, or

(b) the Devanagari form of numerals,

for such purposes as may be specified in the law

This act was passed following the anti-Hindi agitations of 1965 in Tamil Nadu, which saw violent protests, self-immolations, and student-led uprisings.

This resistance catalysed the Dravidian political movement, leading to the rise of the DMK and the long-standing dominance of anti-Hindi parties in Tamil Nadu politics. 

It also signalled that language, in India, would always be political, and often aggressive.

The Three-Language Formula: A Broken Consensus

The Three-Language Formula, introduced by the Kothari Commission in 1968, aimed to bridge regional, national, and global linguistic identities. It proposed:

1. The regional language (mother tongue or state language)

2. Hindi

3. English

However, implementation was uneven and often hypocritical.

Hindi-speaking states did not adopt a South Indian or tribal language as the third language, instead substituting Sanskrit, a classical language with little contemporary utility.

• हिंदी बनाम भारत: भाषा का युद्ध जो गणराज्य को बिखेर रहा है

Conversely, Tamil Nadu outright rejected Hindi and stuck to a two-language policy, Tamil and English.

The National Integration Council repeatedly stressed that imposing Hindi would be counterproductive and divisive. 

Yet, the lack of enforcement in the Hindi belt and the perception of central bias have made this formula a point of persistent discord rather than consensus.

NEP 2020: Reform or Reimposition?

When the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 was released, it rekindled fears of a covert Hindi imposition. 

The policy does not explicitly mandate Hindi but recommends a three-language formula with an emphasis on two being “native to India.”

Critics saw this as ambiguous language masking a Hindi-first agenda.

According to data from the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), over 40% of students in rural areas struggle with reading fluency in their first language.

Adding another language, especially a non-native one like Hindi, would only increase the cognitive load and risks exacerbating dropouts in government schools, especially in tribal and rural regions.

Tamil Nadu: A Legacy of Defiance

Tamil Nadu’s resistance to Hindi imposition is legendary. 

The anti-Hindi agitations of 1937–40, during the British era under the Justice Party’s rule, were among the first organized linguistic protests in modern India. 

These agitations resumed in 1965, culminating in what many believe was the decisive blow that ensured English's indefinite continuance alongside Hindi.

The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), born from the Self-Respect Movement, leveraged this linguistic pride to dominate the state's politics for decades. 

• हिंदी बनाम भारत: भाषा का युद्ध जो गणराज्य को बिखेर रहा है

Today, under Chief Minister M.K. Stalin, the DMK has once again positioned itself as the guardian of Tamil identity.

Recent months have seen:

• Street protests and mass mobilizations against the NEP 2020

• Allegations that the Centre is withholding Rs. 2,000 crore in education funds to pressure compliance

• Public statements invoking Tamil Nadu’s historical resistance and its “unique fighting spirit”

According to state officials, more than 90% of government schools in Tamil Nadu operate on a 

Tamil-English dual medium. Introducing Hindi would require over 10,000 new language teachers, a logistical and financial burden the state refuses to accept.

Karnataka: The Kannada Assertion

In Karnataka, language activism has surged in recent years. 

In 2021, the state passed a law mandating 60% Kannada signboards in commercial establishments, citing the Kannada Language Comprehensive Development Act (2022).

The conflict with Maharashtra over Belagavi has added fuel to the linguistic fire. Kannada activists have clashed with pro-Marathi groups, and the language issue has even influenced electoral politics.

• हिंदी बनाम भारत: भाषा का युद्ध जो गणराज्य को बिखेर रहा है

The Belagavi controversy (also known as the Belgaum border dispute) is a long-standing and politically sensitive territorial dispute between the Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka, centered around the control of the Belagavi (formerly Belgaum) district and adjoining areas.

Public sentiment has been galvanized around:

• The perceived neglect of Kannada in favour of Hindi in central schemes

• The reduction of Kannada content in CBSE and ICSE textbooks

• The central government's attempts to push the NEP without state-specific adaptation

Maharashtra: A Policy Fiasco

In April and June 2025, the Maharashtra government issued GRs introducing mandatory Hindi instruction from Class 1, a break from the earlier practice of offering a third language only in higher grades. This move met with fierce opposition:

• Protests by MNS and Shiv Sena (UBT)

• Accusations of cultural betrayal by Marathi literary figures

• Policy rollback within weeks, allowing flexibility based on class demographics

The reversal reflected not just grassroots opposition, but the fear of losing political ground to 

linguistic populism, a potent force in Maharashtra politics since the 1960s.

Federalism, Identity, and the Politics of Language

Language in India is never just about communication; it is about identity, autonomy, and power. The Centre’s push for Hindi is increasingly viewed as cultural centralization, particularly by the Dravidian and Marathi sub-nationalist movements.

Article 345 of the Constitution gives states the right to adopt their own official languages. However, education (a Concurrent List subject) gives both Centre and states a say, leading to friction.

Central policies such as Hindi-centric recruitment exams and the dominance of Hindi in Doordarshan and AIR are also resented.

• हिंदी बनाम भारत: भाषा का युद्ध जो गणराज्य को बिखेर रहा है

Political parties like DMK, MNS, TDP, and even regional wings of Congress have made language a pillar of their state-level campaigns, often invoking the spectre of “Hindi imperialism.”

Social and Economic Implications

While proponents argue that Hindi can unify the nation and boost employability, the reality is more nuanced:

• Hindi is not the mother tongue for over 55% of Indians

• Imposing it risks excluding non-Hindi speakers from UPSC exams, central jobs, and public sector banks

• According to a 2018 Azim Premji Foundation study, early multilingualism without adequate support increases dropout rates

The push for Hindi may serve political consolidation, but it comes at the cost of educational quality and equity, particularly in under-resourced schools.